Electric Arc Welding: Definition, Process, Benefits, and Applications Explained

Electric arc welding is a method that uses an electric arc to generate high temperatures. This heat efficiently melts metals, allowing them to be welded together. It is popular in many industries due to its versatility and reliability. This technique creates strong bonds between different metal parts, making it effective for various applications.

The process begins with the setup of equipment, which includes a power source, electrode holder, and workpiece. Electric Arc Welding is versatile and can handle various materials, particularly steel and aluminum.

There are several benefits to using Electric Arc Welding. It offers deep penetration and strong welds, making it ideal for thick materials. The process is also efficient, enabling quick and cost-effective production. Additionally, it can be performed in diverse environments, both indoors and outdoors.

Electric Arc Welding finds application across various industries. It is commonly used in construction, automotive manufacturing, and shipbuilding. These sectors benefit from its durability and strength.

As we delve deeper, we will explore the specific types of Electric Arc Welding, each with its unique features and advantages. Understanding these variations will shed light on their suitability for different applications.

Table of Contents

What is Electric Arc Welding and How Does It Work?

Electric Arc Welding (EAW) is a process that uses an electric arc to melt and join metals. The arc forms between an electrode and the workpiece, generating intense heat that fuses the materials.

The American Welding Society (AWS) defines electric arc welding as a method of using a controlled electric arc to provide the heat necessary for melting and joining metals.

EAW encompasses various techniques, such as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). Each technique utilizes different types of electrodes and shielding gases, contributing to its versatility in metal joining applications.

According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), welding involves multiple steps, including preparation, joining, and post-welding inspections. These stages ensure quality and safety in welding operations.

Factors influencing EAW performance include electrode type, electric current settings, and material thickness. Proper settings are crucial to achieve strong and durable welds.

The global electric arc welding market size was valued at approximately $6.89 billion in 2020, according to Grand View Research. It is projected to reach $10.62 billion by 2028, growing at a CAGR of 5.7%.

EAW impacts manufacturing efficiency, construction durability, and vehicle production. Improved welding techniques lead to stronger structures and reduced maintenance costs.

Health risks include exposure to fumes, intense ultraviolet light, and potential injuries from equipment. Environmental concerns involve waste generation and energy consumption.

Examples of EAW’s impact can be seen in the automotive industry, where strong welds lead to safer vehicles. In construction, EAW ensures durable frameworks.

To reduce risks associated with EAW, organizations like the AWS recommend proper training, effective welding procedures, and safety gear.

Implementing automation, advanced materials, and continuous training in EAW practices can enhance safety and efficiency. Adopting eco-friendly welding technologies will also help mitigate environmental impact.

What Equipment is Required for Electric Arc Welding?

Electric arc welding requires several essential pieces of equipment for safe and effective operation.

Welding Power Supply
Electrode Holder
Welding Electrode
Ground Clamp
Protective Gear
Ventilation System
Welding Table or Fixture

The above equipment ensures the proper functioning of electric arc welding and enhances safety during the process. Understanding each component’s role can improve welding outcomes and worker safety.

Welding Power Supply: The welding power supply generates the electric current required to create the arc between the electrode and the workpiece. It can be either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), depending on the welding process. Portable welders are popular for small jobs, while larger industrial projects often use high-capacity transformers or inverter-type supplies for better efficiency and control.
Electrode Holder: The electrode holder is a tool that securely grasps the welding electrode. It is designed to allow the welder to maneuver the electrode during the welding process while providing electrical insulation to prevent shock. Effective design and proper maintenance of the holder are crucial for safety and welding quality.
Welding Electrode: The welding electrode conducts electric current, creating the arc necessary for melting the base metal and forming a weld. Electrodes come in various materials and coatings, each designed for specific applications. Selection of the appropriate electrode can significantly impact weld quality and properties.
Ground Clamp: The ground clamp connects the workpiece to the welding power supply, establishing a complete electrical circuit. Proper grounding minimizes electrical hazards and ensures consistent weld quality. If not secured appropriately, it can lead to poor-quality welds or safety risks.
Protective Gear: Protective gear includes items like helmets, gloves, and aprons that guard the welder against heat, sparks, and ultraviolet light emitted by the welding arc. Using high-quality protective gear is essential to prevent injuries and safely conduct welding activities.
Ventilation System: A good ventilation system is necessary to remove harmful fumes generated during the welding process. Proper airflow reduces health risks associated with welding fumes, which can include respiratory issues and various long-term health concerns, according to the American Welding Society.
Welding Table or Fixture: A stable welding table or fixture is essential for holding the workpieces in place during welding. This equipment increases precision and quality, especially for complex welds. Fixtures can be customized for different projects, enabling repeatable and consistent results.

In summary, using the correct equipment for electric arc welding is vital for performance and safety. Each component works together to ensure a successful welding process.

What Are the Key Steps Involved in the Electric Arc Welding Process?

The key steps involved in the electric arc welding process are as follows:

Preparation of Workpieces
Selection of Welding Equipment
Establishing the Arc
Feeding Welding Electrode
Controlling the Welding Parameters
Completing the Weld
Inspecting the Weld

The electric arc welding process involves a series of steps essential for ensuring efficient and effective welding. Each step is vital and contributes to the overall quality of the weld.

Preparation of Workpieces:
Preparation of workpieces involves cleaning surfaces and aligning pieces to be welded. Proper cleaning ensures good electrical conductivity. Alignment is crucial for achieving a good fit-up and maintaining the desired joint integrity.
Selection of Welding Equipment:
Selection of welding equipment refers to choosing appropriate machines and tools for the job. Electric arc welding typically requires an electric power source, electrodes, and a welding torch. Different types of equipment are available for various applications, which can influence weld quality and efficiency.
Establishing the Arc:
Establishing the arc is the process of creating an electric arc between the electrode and the workpiece. This arc generates sufficient heat to melt the electrode and the base material. Proper arc management is crucial, as too long or too short an arc can adversely affect the weld.
Feeding Welding Electrode:
Feeding the welding electrode refers to the controlled movement of the electrode toward the weld joint. The rate at which the electrode is fed directly affects the welding speed and heat input into the materials. Automatic and manual feeding options are available.
Controlling the Welding Parameters:
Controlling the welding parameters involves adjusting the voltage, current, and travel speed. These parameters require careful monitoring to ensure optimal weld quality. For example, higher current can lead to deeper penetration, while lower current may result in a shallow weld.
Completing the Weld:
Completing the weld signifies the conclusion of the welding process. After the weld is finished, the welder must allow it to cool properly to avoid cracking or distortion. Proper completion techniques improve weld strength and longevity.
Inspecting the Weld:
Inspecting the weld involves checking the finished weld for defects or inconsistencies. Common inspection methods include visual inspection, x-ray examination, and ultrasonic testing. Thorough inspections help ensure the integrity and safety of the welded joint.

In conclusion, each of these steps is interconnected, and attention to detail at each stage is crucial for successful electric arc welding.

What Are the Major Benefits of Electric Arc Welding?

The major benefits of electric arc welding include increased versatility, high welding speed, and strong weld quality.

Versatility in Applications
High Welding Speed
Strong Weld Quality
Minimal Distortion
Cost-Effectiveness

Electric arc welding offers several key advantages that enhance its usability and efficiency.

Versatility in Applications: Electric arc welding demonstrates a wide range of applications across different industries. This method can join various metals, including steel, aluminum, and nickel alloys. For instance, high-quality welds are essential in the automotive and construction sectors, where strength and durability are crucial.
High Welding Speed: Electric arc welding allows for fast welding processes. With the use of continuous wire feed and efficient heating, welders can complete jobs quicker than with many other methods. According to a 2021 report by the American Welding Society, the speed of electric arc welding can enhance productivity significantly in manufacturing settings.
Strong Weld Quality: Electric arc welding produces strong, durable welds that maintain structural integrity. The process creates deep, penetrating welds that resist cracking and failure. For example, a study conducted by Lee et al. (2020) demonstrated that electric arc welded joints consistently outperformed those created by alternative methods in terms of tensile strength.
Minimal Distortion: Electric arc welding generates concentrated heat at the weld area, which reduces the overall heat-affected zone (HAZ). This containment minimizes thermal distortion and warping of the base materials. Industry experts emphasize that reduced distortion helps maintain the original specifications of the parts, which is vital in precision applications.
Cost-Effectiveness: Electric arc welding can be more economical than other welding methods due to lower operational costs and reduced material waste. The availability of consumables, combined with the efficiency of the process, results in lower labor and material expenses. This is particularly beneficial for large-scale production where cost savings can have a substantial impact on overall project budgets.

In summary, the benefits of electric arc welding make it a preferred choice in many welding applications, combining speed, quality, and cost-effectiveness.

How Does Electric Arc Welding Create Stronger Joints?

Electric arc welding creates stronger joints by generating intense heat that melts the base metal and filler material. This process results in a molten pool that fuses the materials together. When the molten pool cools and solidifies, it forms a strong bond. The heat from the electric arc not only reaches high temperatures but also allows for deep penetration into the material. This leads to a better fusion of the metals.

Additionally, the electric arc stabilizes the welding pool, reducing the likelihood of defects. As the materials bond, they adopt similar physical and chemical properties. This improves the overall strength of the joint. The strength of the welded joint exceeds the strength of the base materials in many cases. Consequently, electric arc welding produces durable, high-quality connections suitable for structural applications.

Why is Electric Arc Welding Considered Cost-Effective?

Electric Arc Welding is considered cost-effective due to its high efficiency, speed, and versatility in joining metals. This welding technique minimizes material waste and labor costs, leading to overall savings in projects.

The American Welding Society defines electric arc welding as a process that uses an electric arc to create enough heat to fuse metals together. This classification indicates its acceptance and standardization within the welding industry.

Several factors contribute to the cost-effectiveness of electric arc welding. First, the method allows for quick welding, which increases productivity. More work can be completed in less time, thereby reducing labor costs. Second, electric arc welding is adaptable to various materials and thicknesses, decreasing the need for multiple welding procedures. Third, its equipment is comparatively inexpensive and widely available, which lowers initial investment costs.

Key terms like “welding” refer to the process of joining two materials, often metals, by melting them together, while “electric arc” describes the intense heat generated by an electrical discharge between two electrodes. This heat is what makes the metal liquefy and fuse.

Electric arc welding relies on a constant stream of electricity to establish the arc. When an electric current passes through the welding rod and the workpieces, it produces a high-temperature arc that melts the base metals and fills material. The technique often employs filler material to ensure strong bonds between the metals.

Specific conditions that enhance the cost-effectiveness of electric arc welding include using appropriate amperage and voltage settings for the materials involved. For example, a high welding speed can be beneficial when working with thin sheets of metal, as it prevents overheating and minimizes distortion. Additionally, using high-quality consumables, like filler rods, can result in fewer defects and repairs, further reducing costs in the long run. These scenarios illustrate how careful control over the welding parameters can lead to efficient, cost-effective results.

Which Materials Can Be Effectively Welded Using Electric Arc Techniques?

Electric arc welding can effectively weld a variety of materials, primarily metals and alloys.

Ferrous metals (e.g., carbon steel, stainless steel)
Non-ferrous metals (e.g., aluminum, copper, titanium)
Low-alloy steels
High-strength low-alloy steels
Cast iron
Specialty alloys (e.g., Inconel, Monel)

The effectiveness of electric arc welding varies by material type and application. Different perspectives exist regarding the efficiency and quality of welds based on the specific material being welded.

Ferrous Metals:
Ferrous metals, such as carbon steel and stainless steel, are widely welded using electric arc techniques. These materials contain iron and are known for their strength and machinability. According to the American Welding Society, carbon steel is the most commonly welded material in the United States due to its good weldability and cost-effectiveness. Stainless steel, while more challenging due to its alloying elements, can still be effectively welded with proper techniques.
Non-Ferrous Metals:
Non-ferrous metals, including aluminum and copper, can be welded using specialized electric arc methods. Aluminum is used in industries such as aerospace and automotive. A study by Zhang et al. (2020) found that electric arc welding of aluminum requires precise heat management to avoid warping. Copper, which has high thermal conductivity, can also be welded effectively, but it may require additional filler materials or specific welding parameters to ensure quality.
Low-Alloy Steels:
Low-alloy steels are defined by their reduced carbon content and enhanced elemental compositions, which improve properties like toughness and corrosion resistance. According to the International Institute of Welding, electric arc welding is suitable for these materials, often used in construction and structural applications.
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels:
High-strength low-alloy steels can be welded effectively with electric arc techniques, offering improved mechanical properties without significantly increasing weight. These steels are commonly used in applications like bridges and buildings where strength and lightness are necessary.
Cast Iron:
Electric arc welding can also be applied to cast iron, although it requires proper techniques to prevent cracking. Research by Ashok et al. (2018) indicates that preheating cast iron before welding can minimize thermal stresses and ensure strong bonds.
Specialty Alloys:
Specialty alloys, such as Inconel and Monel, are utilized in extreme environments due to their corrosion and heat resistance. Electric arc welding provides a means to join these materials, but skilled techniques are often necessary to handle their unique characteristics, as outlined in a study by Johnson and Ahmed (2021).

In conclusion, various materials can be effectively welded using electric arc techniques, each presenting unique challenges and requirements for successful joints. Proper knowledge and technique are essential to achieving high-quality welds.

What Are the Common Applications of Electric Arc Welding?

Electric arc welding has various common applications across multiple industries.

Construction
Automotive manufacturing
Shipbuilding
Pipeline installation and repair
Aerospace
Metal fabrication
Railroad maintenance
Heavy equipment repair

Electric arc welding plays a crucial role in multiple industries. The following sections offer detailed explanations for each application.

Construction: Electric arc welding in construction involves joining steel structures and frames. This method provides strong bonds necessary for the stability of buildings and bridges. According to the American Institute of Steel Construction, welded connections can enhance the structural integrity and reduce construction time compared to bolted connections.
Automotive Manufacturing: Electric arc welding is widely used in automotive manufacturing to assemble vehicle frames, body panels, and components. This process enhances production speed and weld quality. A study by the Society of Automotive Engineers indicates that arc welding improves fatigue resistance in vehicles, contributing to their overall safety.
Shipbuilding: Electric arc welding is essential in the shipbuilding industry for assembling the hull and internal structures of ships. The American Bureau of Shipping emphasizes that arc-welded joints provide the required strength to withstand harsh marine environments. This method is also favorable for working with thick steel plates used in ship structures.
Pipeline Installation and Repair: Electric arc welding is used extensively for joining sections of pipelines that carry oil, gas, and water. This method ensures leak-proof connections, which are vital for safety and regulatory compliance. The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration states that proper welding practices reduce the risk of pipeline failure.
Aerospace: Electric arc welding is applied in the aerospace industry to manufacture components that require high strength-to-weight ratios. This process ensures a durable bond in critical parts such as fuselage assemblies. The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics notes that precision welding is crucial for maintaining the structural integrity of aircraft under extreme conditions.
Metal Fabrication: Electric arc welding is foundational in metal fabrication workshops for creating custom metal products. This application allows for flexibility in design and size while maintaining high quality. A report by the Fabricators & Manufacturers Association points out that welding techniques significantly influence the production efficiency of fabricated metal products.
Railroad Maintenance: Electric arc welding is utilized for repairing and maintaining railroad tracks. This method provides a reliable joint that can handle the stresses of heavy train traffic. The Federal Railroad Administration states that well-executed welds are critical for track integrity, impacting safety and efficiency.
Heavy Equipment Repair: Electric arc welding is commonly used to repair machinery and heavy equipment. This application is vital in industries such as construction and agriculture where equipment durability is essential. According to a report by the National Association of Manufacturers, effective welding repairs prolong the life of machinery and reduce operational downtime.

In Which Industries is Electric Arc Welding Primarily Used?

Electric arc welding is primarily used in various industries. The manufacturing industry utilizes it for producing metal parts and components. The construction industry employs electric arc welding for building structures and infrastructure. The automotive industry relies on this technique for welding vehicle frames and body panels. The aerospace industry incorporates electric arc welding to assemble critical components in aircraft. The shipbuilding industry uses electric arc welding for fabricating hulls and other parts of ships. Additionally, the oil and gas industry applies this method for pipeline construction and repair. These industries benefit from electric arc welding due to its efficiency and effectiveness in joining metals.

What Types of Projects Benefit Most from Electric Arc Welding?

Electric Arc Welding benefits various types of projects that require strong, durable welds. The following are the main projects that benefit most from this welding process:

Heavy industrial fabrication
Shipbuilding
Pipeline construction
Structural steel work
Automotive manufacturing
Maintenance and repair projects

The advantages of Electric Arc Welding span several industries and project types, allowing for specific applications tailored to unique project demands.

Heavy Industrial Fabrication:
Heavy industrial fabrication utilizes Electric Arc Welding for constructing large structures such as bridges and heavy machinery. This process offers strong and reliable welds essential for supporting immense weights and stresses. According to the American Welding Society, Electric Arc Welding is favored in industries that require strength and durability.
Shipbuilding:
Shipbuilding relies on Electric Arc Welding to create watertight seals in hull assemblies and superstructures. This method is ideal for welding thick components that must endure harsh marine environments. The U.S. Navy has used Electric Arc Welding techniques in fleet maintenance due to their effectiveness in creating durable joints.
Pipeline Construction:
Electric Arc Welding is crucial in pipeline construction for its capability to handle high-pressure systems. The welding produces robust joints that can withstand stress and temperature variations. A study by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers highlighted its significance in ensuring the integrity of gas and oil pipelines.
Structural Steel Work:
Structural steel work benefits significantly from Electric Arc Welding, as it provides strong, fatigue-resistant joints. This ensures stability in buildings and other structures. A survey from the National Institute of Standards and Technology indicated that Electric Arc Welding is preferred for high-rise buildings due to its speed and reliability.
Automotive Manufacturing:
Electric Arc Welding is an integral technique in automotive manufacturing, especially for chassis and frame assembly. This welding method allows for precision and repeatability, which are critical for mass production. According to the Society of Automotive Engineers, modern vehicles often use Electric Arc Welding to meet safety and performance standards.
Maintenance and Repair Projects:
Electric Arc Welding is commonly used for maintenance and repair projects, as it can effectively restore structural integrity to various components. This process allows for on-site repairs, reducing downtime. Case studies from industry leaders have shown that Electric Arc Welding is essential in keeping machinery and industrial equipment operational.

What Safety Precautions Should Be Taken During Electric Arc Welding?

Safety precautions during electric arc welding are crucial to prevent accidents and injuries. The following measures should be taken:

Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
Ensure proper ventilation in the welding area.
Keep flammable materials away from the work area.
Use insulated tools and equipment.
Maintain a safe distance from others during welding.
Regularly check equipment for damage.
Be aware of electrical hazards.
Familiarize yourself with emergency procedures.

These precautions create a foundation for safe welding practices. Understanding each aspect in detail ensures compliance and safety in the workplace.

Wear Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
Wearing appropriate PPE during electric arc welding is vital. This includes a welding helmet with a proper shading lens, gloves, and flame-resistant clothing. The helmet protects the face and eyes from intense light and heat, while gloves provide hand protection against burns. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) emphasizes that proper PPE can reduce injury severity and occurrence.
Ensure Proper Ventilation in the Welding Area:
Ensuring ventilation is crucial for minimizing harmful fumes produced during welding. Adequate airflow helps disperse toxic gases, preventing respiratory issues. According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), adequate ventilation can significantly reduce the risk of exposure to harmful substances.
Keep Flammable Materials Away from the Work Area:
Keeping flammable materials away from the work area minimizes the risk of fire. Sparks from welding can ignite flammable liquids, gases, and other combustibles. The American Welding Society (AWS) advises maintaining a clearance zone of at least 35 feet around the welding area to ensure safety.
Use Insulated Tools and Equipment:
Using insulated tools protects welders from electric shock hazards. Insulated tools are designed to prevent electrical conductivity, offering an extra layer of safety. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) states that insulated equipment reduces the risk of electrical accidents significantly.
Maintain a Safe Distance from Others During Welding:
Maintaining a safe distance from others during welding is important to protect bystanders from sparks and UV radiation. OSHA guidelines suggest keeping a safe zone, preferably 10 feet, around the welding area to safeguard other workers.
Regularly Check Equipment for Damage:
Regular inspections of welding equipment can prevent malfunctions and fires. Faulty cables and connections lead to hazards. A 2021 study by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers found that over 30% of welding-related accidents stemmed from equipment failure, emphasizing the need for maintenance.
Be Aware of Electrical Hazards:
Being aware of electrical hazards is essential during welding. Welders must identify potential sources of electrical shock, such as wet surfaces and damaged cords. Electrical safety training is important; The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) highlights that education on hazards reduces injury rates significantly.
Familiarize Yourself with Emergency Procedures:
Familiarizing oneself with emergency procedures ensures prompt response in case of accidents. Workers should know the location of first aid kits, emergency shut-offs, and fire extinguishers. Regular drills can enhance preparedness and awareness, ensuring safety within the workplace environment.

What Are the Key Hazards Associated with Electric Arc Welding?

Electric Arc Welding presents several key hazards that can affect the safety of operators and the work environment.

Electric shock.
Burns from hot materials or molten metal.
Fumes and gases exposure.
UV radiation exposure.
Fire hazards.
Eye damage from bright light.
Noise hazards.

Understanding these hazards is crucial for ensuring safety during electric arc welding operations.

Electric Shock: Electric shock occurs when an electric current flows through the body. This can happen if a welder comes into contact with live parts of the welding equipment. According to OSHA, shock can cause severe injury or death. The severity depends on the voltage and current passing through the body.
Burns from Hot Materials or Molten Metal: Burns can happen from direct contact with hot surfaces or molten metal produced during welding. The American Burn Association states that burns are common in welding-related activities. Protective gear such as gloves and aprons are essential to prevent these injuries.
Fumes and Gases Exposure: The welding process generates fumes and gases that can be harmful if inhaled. Materials being welded can release toxic substances. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) emphasizes the importance of proper ventilation to minimize risks.
UV Radiation Exposure: During electric arc welding, intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation can cause skin burns and eye damage, particularly a condition known as “arc eye.” This is a painful inflammation of the cornea. Using welding helmets with proper filters can significantly reduce exposure, according to the American Welding Society.
Fire Hazards: The heat and sparks generated in electric arc welding can ignite nearby flammable materials, posing a significant fire risk. The National Fire Protection Association advises maintaining a safe distance from combustible materials and using appropriate fire extinguishers.
Eye Damage from Bright Light: The bright light produced during welding can cause permanent eye damage. Unprotected eyes are at risk of cataracts and other vision problems. Protective eyewear designed specifically for welding is recommended.
Noise Hazards: Electric arc welding can produce high noise levels, which may lead to hearing loss over time. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the use of ear protection in loud environments to avoid hearing impairment.

Awareness of these hazards and proper safety measures can help mitigate risks associated with electric arc welding.

How Can Welders Prevent Injuries and Ensure Safety?

Welders can prevent injuries and ensure safety by using proper personal protective equipment, adhering to safety protocols, maintaining a clean workspace, and undergoing regular training.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is essential for welders. This gear includes helmets with proper filters, gloves, flame-resistant clothing, and safety boots. A study by the American Welding Society (AWS) in 2021 highlighted that 85% of welding-related injuries could be prevented with appropriate PPE.

Safety protocols should always be followed in welding environments. This includes understanding equipment features and hazards, as well as following manufacturer’s guidelines. According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), proper training and adherence to safety standards can reduce workplace accidents by 47% (OSHA, 2020).

A clean workspace helps minimize hazards. It is important to remove clutter and ensure proper ventilation. A clean environment can prevent accidents caused by tripping or respiratory issues. A report from the National Safety Council (NSC) in 2019 indicated that 30% of workplace injuries occur in disorganized environments.

Regular training is crucial for maintaining safe practices. Welders should participate in ongoing training programs that cover the latest safety standards and equipment usage. Training helps reinforce safe techniques and keeps welders aware of potential workplace changes that may introduce new risks. According to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), systems with ongoing training saw a 25% reduction in injuries over five years.

By implementing these key practices, welders can significantly enhance their safety and reduce the likelihood of work-related injuries.

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